1 “Touch the tiger’s buttocks” is a Chinese idiom popularized by Mao, meaning to do something daring or dangerous. The occasion of this remark was my meeting with Hua Guofeng in Beijing in April 1979.

2 During the Cultural Revolution, then Defense Minister Lin Biao abolished all ranks and insignia and ordered extensive ideological training for Chinese troops using the “Little Red Book” of Mao’s aphorisms. The PLA was called on to play social and ideological roles far outside the mission of an ordinary military. A penetrating account of the toll these developments took on the PLA during the conflict with Vietnam may be found in Edward O’Dowd, Chinese Military Strategy in the Third Indochina War (New York: Routledge, 2007).

3 “Zhou Enlai, Kang Sheng, and Pham Van Dong: Beijing, 29 April 1968,” in Odd Arne Westad, Chen Jian, Stein Tønnesson, Nguyen Vu Tung, and James G. Hershberg, eds., “77 Conversations Between Chinese and Foreign Leaders on the Wars in Indochina, 1964–1977,” Cold War International History Project Working Paper Series, working paper no. 22 (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson International History Project, May 1998), 127–28. (Brackets in original.)

5 I have always believed that having been willing to force the—to Mao—ideologically correct Khmer Rouge into a compromise, unnecessarily as it turned out, contributed to Zhou’s fall. See also Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982), 368.

6 Robert S. Ross, The Indochina Tangle: China’s Vietnam Policy, 1975–1979 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 74, quoting Xinhua news report (August 15, 1975), as translated in Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) Daily Report, People’s Republic of China (August 18, 1975), A7.

8 Ibid., 98, quoting Xinhua news report (March 15, 1976), as translated in FBIS Daily Report, People’s Republic of China (March 16, 1976), A13.

9 In April 1978, the Afghan President was assassinated and his government was replaced; on December 5, 1978, the Soviet Union and the new government of Afghanistan entered into a Treaty of Friendship, Good-Neighborliness and Cooperation; and on February 19, 1979, the U.S. ambassador to Afghanistan was assassinated.

10 Cyrus Vance, Hard Choices: Critical Years in America’s Foreign Policy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983), 79.

11 “President Carter’s Instructions to Zbigniew Brzezinski for His Mission to China, May 17, 1978,” in Zbigniew Brzezinski, Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser, 1977–1981 (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1985), Annex I, 2.

12 The five principles were: affirmation of a one China policy; a commitment not to offer American support to Taiwan independence movements; American discouragement of a hypothetical Japanese deployment into Taiwan; support for any peaceful resolution between Beijing and Taipei; and a commitment to continued normalization. See Chapter 9, “Resumption of Relations: First Encounters with Mao and Zhou,” page 271.

13 “Memorandum of Conversation, Summary of the President’s Meeting with the People’s Republic of China Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping: Washington, January, 29th 1979, 3:35–4:59 p.m.,” Jimmy Carter Presidential Library (JCPL), Vertical File—China, item no. 270, 10–11.

14 “Summary of Dr. Brzezinski’s Meeting with Foreign Minister Huang Hua: Beijing, May 21st, 1978,” JCPL, Vertical File—China, item no. 232, 3.

16 Ibid. Sadat served as President of Egypt from 1970 until his assassination in 1981. The “bold action” referred to included Sadat’s expulsion of over twenty thousand Soviet military advisors from Egypt in 1972, the launching of the October 1973 War, and the subsequent entry into a peace process with Israel.

19 “Memorandum of Conversation, Meeting with Vice Premier Teng Hsiao P’ing: Beijing, May 21st, 1978,” JCPL, Vertical File—China, item no. 232-e, 16.

21 “Summary of Dr. Brzezinski’s Meeting with Chairman Hua Kuo-feng: Beijing, May 22nd, 1978,” JCPL, Vertical File—China, item no. 233c, 4–5.

22 “Memorandum of Conversation, Summary of the President’s Meeting with Ambassador Ch’ai Tse-min: Washington, September 19, 1978,” JCPL, Vertical File—China, item no. 250b, 3.

23 “Memorandum of Conversation, Meeting with Vice Premier Teng Hsiao P’ing: Beijing, May 21st 1978,” JCPL, Vertical File—China, item no. 232-e, 6.

24 In recent years, Chinese leaders and policy analysts have introduced the phrase “peaceful rise” to describe China’s foreign policy aspiration to achieve major-power status within the framework of the existing international system. In a thoughtful article synthesizing both Chinese and Western scholarship on the concept, the scholar Barry Buzan raises the prospect that China’s “peaceful rise” began in the late 1970s and early 1980s, as Deng increasingly aligned China’s domestic development and foreign policy to the nonrevolutionary world and sought out common interests with the West. Deng’s trips abroad offered dramatic proof of this realignment. See Barry Buzan, “China in International Society: Is ‘Peaceful Rise’ Possible?” The Chinese Journal of International Politics 3 (2010): 12–13.

27 Henry Kamm, “Teng Begins Southeast Asian Tour to Counter Rising Soviet Influence,” New York Times (November 6, 1978), A1.

28 Henry Kamm, “Teng Tells the Thais Moscow-Hanoi Treaty Perils World’s Peace,” New York Times (November 9, 1978), A9.

29 “Excerpts from Talks Given in Wuchang, Shenzhen, Zhuhai and Shanghai: January 18–February 21, 1992,” in Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, vol. 3, trans., The Bureau for the Compilation and Translation of Works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin Under the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1994), 366.

30 Lee Kuan Yew, From Third World to First: The Singapore Story—1965–2000 (New York: HarperCollins, 2000), 597.

32 Fox Butterfield, “Differences Fade as Rivals Mingle to Honor Teng,” New York Times (January 30, 1979), A1.

33 Joseph Lelyveld, “‘Astronaut’ Teng Gets New View of World in Houston,” New York Times (February 3, 1979), A1.

34 Fox Butterfield, “Teng Again Says Chinese May Move Against Vietnam,” New York Times (February 1, 1979), A16.

35 Joseph Lelyveld, “‘Astronaut’ Teng Gets New View of World in Houston,” A1. For consistency with the main text of the present volume, the quoted passage’s original spelling “Teng Hsiao-p’ing” has been rendered as “Deng Xiaoping.”

36 Twenty-two years represented the interval between the two world wars. Since more than twenty-two years had elapsed since the end of the Second World War, Chinese leaders were nervous that a certain historical rhythm was moving events. Mao had made the same point to the Australian Communist leader E. F. Hill a decade earlier. See also Chapter 8, “The Road to Reconciliation,” page 207; and Chen Jian and David L. Wilson, eds., “All Under the Heaven Is Great Chaos: Beijing, the Sino-Soviet Border Clashes, and the Turn Toward Sino-American Rapprochement, 1968–69,” Cold War International History Project Bulletin 11 (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Winter 1998), 161.

37 “Memorandum of Conversation, Summary of the President’s First Meeting with PRC Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping: Washington, January 29th, 1979,” JCPL, Vertical File—China, item no. 268, 8–9.

38 “Memorandum of Conversation, Meeting with Vice Premier Teng Hsiao P’ing: Beijing, May 21st, 1978,” JCPL, Vertical File—China, item no. 232-e, 14.

39 “Memorandum of Conversation, Summary of the President’s Meeting with the People’s Republic of China Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping: Washington, January 29th, 1979, 3:35–4:59 p.m.,” JCPL, Vertical File—China, item no. 270, 10–11.

40 “Memorandum of Conversation, Carter–Deng, Subject: Vietnam: Washington, January 29th, 1979, 5:00 p.m.–5:40 p.m.,” JCPL, Brzezinski Collection, China [PRC] 12/19/78–10/3/79, item no. 007, 2.

42 “Memorandum of Conversation, Carter–Deng, Washington, January 29th, 1979, 5:00 p.m.–5:40 p.m.,” JCPL, Brzezinski Collection, China [PRC] 12/19/78–10/3/79, item no. 007, 2.

45 “President Reporting on His Conversations with Deng: January 30th, 1979,” JCPL, Brzezinski Collection, China [PRC] 12/19/78–10/3/79, item no. 009, 1.

46 Henry Scott-Stokes, “Teng Criticizes the U.S. for a Lack of Firmness in Iran,” New York Times (February 8, 1979), A12.

47 The lower figure appears in Bruce Elleman, Modern Chinese Warfare, 1795–1989 (New York: Routledge, 2001), 285. The higher figure is the estimate of Edward O’Dowd in Chinese Military Strategy in the Third Indochina War, 3, 45–55.

49 Deng Xiaoping to Jimmy Carter on January 30, 1979, as quoted in Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 409–10.

50 “Text of Declaration by Moscow,” New York Times (February 19, 1979); Craig R. Whitney, “Security Pact Cited: Moscow Says It Will Honor Terms of Treaty—No Direct Threat Made,” New York Times (February 19, 1979), A1.

51 Edward Cowan, “Blumenthal Delivers Warning,” New York Times (February 28, 1979), A1.

53 One of the few scholars to challenge this conventional wisdom—and to emphasize the conflict’s anti-Soviet dimension—is Bruce Elleman, in his Modern Chinese Warfare, 284–97.

54 For a review of various estimates of PLA casualties, see O’Dowd, Chinese Military Strategy in the Third Indochina War, 45.

55 “Memorandum of Conversation, Summary of the President’s First Meeting with PRC Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping: Washington, January 29th, 1979,” JCPL, Vertical File—China, item no. 268, 8.

56 “Memorandum, President Reporting on His Conversations with Deng: January 30th, 1979,” JCPL, Brzezinski Collection, China [PRC] 12/19/ 78–10/3/79, item no. 009, 2.

57 “Memorandum of Conversation with Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping: Beijing, January 8th, 1980,” JCPL, NSA Brzez. Matl. Far East, Box No. 69, Brown (Harold) Trip Memcons, 1/80, File, 16.

58 “Memorandum of Conversation with Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping: Beijing, January 8th, 1980,” JCPL, NSA Brzez. Matl. Far East, Box No. 69, Brown (Harold) Trip Memcons, 1/80, File, 15.

59 “President Carter’s Instructions to Zbigniew Brzezinski for His Mission to China, May 17, 1978,” in Brzezinski, Power and Principle, Annex I, 4.

60 By one estimate, as of 1986 Vietnam stationed “700,000 combat troops in the northern portion of the country.” Karl D. Jackson, “Indochina, 1982–1985: Peace Yields to War,” in Solomon and Kosaka, eds., The Soviet Far East Military Buildup, as cited in Elleman, Modern Chinese Warfare, 206.

61 “Memorandum of Conversation, Summary of the Vice President’s Meeting with People’s Republic of China Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping: Beijing, August 28th, 1979, 9:30 a.m.–12:00 noon,” JCPL, Vertical File—China, item no. 279, 9.

62 “Memorandum of Conversation Between President Carter and Premier Hua Guofeng of the People’s Republic of China: Tokyo, July 10th, 1980,” JCPL, NSA Brzez. Matl. Subj. File, Box No. 38, “Memcons: President, 7/80.”

63 As quoted in Chen Jian, China’s Road to the Korean War (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), 149.

64 “Memorandum of Conversation, Summary of Dr. Brzezinski’s Conversation with Vice Premier Geng Biao of the People’s Republic of China: Washington, May 29th, 1980,” JCPL, NSA Brzez. Matl. Far East, Box No. 70, “Geng Biao Visit, 5/23–31/80,” Folder, 5.

1 George H. W. Bush and Brent Scowcroft, A World Transformed (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 93–94.

3 Joint Communiqué Issued by the Governments of the United States and the People’s Republic of China (August 17, 1982), as printed in Alan D. Romberg, Rein In at the Brink of the Precipice: American Policy Toward Taiwan and U.S.-PRC Relations (Washington, D.C.: Henry L. Stimson Center, 2003), 243.

4 Nancy Bernkopf Tucker, Strait Talk: United States–Taiwan Relations and the Crisis with China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009), 151.

7 John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History (New York: Penguin, 2005), 213–14, note 43.

8 Hu Yaobang, “Create a New Situation in All Fields of Socialist Modernization—Report to the 12th National Congress of the Communist Party of China: September 1, 1982,” Beijing Review 37 (September 13, 1982): 29.

12 Charles Hill, “Shifts in China’s Foreign Policy: The US and USSR” (April 21, 1984), Ronald Reagan Presidential Library (hereafter RRPL), 90946 (Asian Affairs Directorate, NSC).

13 Directorate of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency, “China-USSR: Maneuvering in the Triangle” (December 20, 1985), RRPL, 007-R.

14 “Memorandum to President Reagan from Former President Nixon,” as appended to Memorandum for the President from William P. Clark, re: Former President Nixon’s Trip to China (September 25, 1982), RRPL, William Clark Files, 002.

15 George P. Shultz, Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1993), 382.

16 Ronald Reagan, “Remarks at Fudan University in Shanghai, April 30, 1984,” Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986), book 1, 603–8; “Remarks to Chinese Community Leaders in Beijing, April 27, 1984,” Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States , book 1, 579–84.

17 Donald Zagoria, “China’s Quiet Revolution,” Foreign Affairs 62, no. 4 (April 1984): 881.

18 Jonathan Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 654–55.

21 Richard Baum, Burying Mao: Chinese Politics in the Age of Deng Xiaoping (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 231–32.

1 Jonathan Spence notes that 1989 represented a convergence of several politically charged anniversaries: it was “the two hundredth anniversary of the French Revolution, the seventieth anniversary of the May Fourth movement, the fortieth birthday of the People’s Republic itself, and the passage of ten years since formal diplomatic relations with the United States had been reinstituted.” Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 696.

2 Andrew J. Nathan, “Preface to the Paperback Edition: The Tiananmen Papers—An Editor’s Reflections,” in Zhang Liang, Andrew Nathan, and Perry Link, eds., The Tiananmen Papers (New York: Public Affairs, 2001), viii.

3 Richard Baum, Burying Mao: Chinese Politics in the Age of Deng Xiaoping (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 254.

4 Nathan, Introduction to The Tiananmen Papers , “The Documents and Their Significance,” lv.

5 An example of one such attempt to implement conditionality was the Clinton administration’s policy of conditioning China’s Most Favored Nation trade status on changes in its human rights record, to be discussed more fully in Chapter 17, “A Roller Coaster Ride Toward Another Reconciliation: The Jiang Zemin Era.”

6 David M. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams: Managing U.S.-China Relations, 1989–2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 305.

7 George H. W. Bush and Brent Scowcroft, A World Transformed (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 89–90.

9 Congress and the White House shared a concern that visiting students who had publicly protested in the United States would be subject to punishment on their return to China. The President had signaled that applications for visa extensions would be treated favorably, while Congress sought to grant the extensions without requiring an application.

16 Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 105–6. Chinese Foreign Minister Qian Qichen disputes this account in his memoirs, averring that the plane was never in any danger. Qian Qichen, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy (New York: HarperCollins, 2005), 133.

26 Deng had made clear that he intended to retire very shortly. He did, in fact, do so in 1992, though he continued to be regarded as an influential arbiter of policy.

27 The five principles of peaceful coexistence were negotiated by India and China in 1954. They concerned coexistence and mutual noninterference between countries with different ideological orientations.

28 Deng made a similar point to Richard Nixon during the latter’s October 1989 private visit to Beijing: “Please tell President Bush let’s end the past, the United States ought to take the initiative, and only the United States can take the initiative. The United States is able to take the initiative. . . . China is unable to initiate. This is because the stronger is America, the weaker is China, the injured is China. If you want China to beg, it cannot be done. If it drags on a hundred years, the Chinese people can’t beg [you] to end sanctions [against China]. . . . Whatever Chinese leader makes a mistake in this respect would surely fall, the Chinese people will not forgive him.” As quoted in Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams, 29.

29 Some in the White House maintained that it was unnecessarily provocative to invite Fang Lizhi to attend a presidential banquet with the same Chinese authorities he was criticizing. They blamed the American Embassy in Beijing for failing to forewarn them of the impending controversy. In including Fang on the list of potential invitees, the American ambassador in Beijing, Winston Lord, had in fact flagged him as an outspoken dissident whose inclusion might provoke Chinese government consternation, but who nonetheless merited an invitation.

30 “Cable, From: U.S. Embassy Beijing, To: Department of State, Wash DC, SITREP No. 49, June 12, 0500 Local (June 11, 1989),” in Jeffrey T. Richardson and Michael L. Evans, eds., Tiananmen Square, 1989: The Declassified History , National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book no. 16 (June 1, 1999), Document 26.

32 U.S. Embassy Beijing Cable, “China and the U.S.—A Protracted Engagement,” July 11, 1989, SECRET, in Michael L. Evans, ed., The U.S. Tiananmen Papers: New Documents Reveal U.S. Perceptions of 1989 Chinese Political Crisis, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book (June 4, 2001), Document 11.

38 Fang and his wife would ultimately depart China for the U.K. on an American military transport plane. They subsequently relocated to the United States, where Fang became a professor of physics at the University of Arizona.

39 Richard Evans, Deng Xiaoping and the Making of Modern China (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1993), 304 (quoting Zheng Ming , Hong Kong, May 1, 1990).

40 “Deng Initiates New Policy ‘Guiding Principle,’” FBIS-CHI-91-215; see also United States Department of Defense, Office of the Secretary of Defense, “Military Power of the People’s Republic of China: A Report to Congress Pursuant to the National Defense Authorization Act Fiscal Year 2000” (2007), 7, http://www.defense.gov/pubs/pdfs/070523-china-military-powerfinal.pdf .

1 Richard Baum, Burying Mao: Chinese Politics in the Age of Deng Xiaoping (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 334.

2 “Excerpts from Talks Given in Wuchang, Shenzhen, Zhuhai and Shanghai: January 18–February 21, 1992,” Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, vol. 3, trans., The Bureau for the Compilation and Translation of Works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin Under the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1994), 359.

8 David M. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams : Managing U.S.-China Relations, 1989–2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), xi.

9 “Excerpts from Talks Given in Wuchang, Shenzhen, Zhuhai and Shanghai: January 18—February 21, 1992,” Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, vol. 3, 370.

Chapter 17: A Roller Coaster Ride Toward Another Reconciliation: The Jiang Zemin Era

1 See David M. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams: Managing U.S.-China Relations, 1989–2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 293, 308.

2 State Department Bureau of Intelligence and Research, “China: Aftermath of the Crisis” (July 27, 1989), 17, in Jeffrey T. Richardson and Michael L. Evans, eds., “Tiananmen Square, 1989: The Declassified History,” National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book no. 16 (June 1, 1999), Document 36.

3 Steven Mufson, “China’s Economic ‘Boss’: Zhu Rongji to Take Over as Premier,” Washington Post (March 5, 1998), A1.

4 September 14, 1992, statement, as quoted in A. M. Rosenthal, “On My Mind: Here We Go Again,” New York Times (April 9, 1993); on divergent Chinese and Western interpretations of this statement, see also Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams, 32.

5 “Confronting the Challenges of a Broader World,” President Clinton Address to the United Nations General Assembly, New York City, September 27, 1993, from Department of State Dispatch 4, no. 39 (September 27, 1993).

6 Robert Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen: The Politics of U.S.-China Relations, 1989–2000 (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 2003), 161.

7 Deng Xiaoping had given a speech in November 1989 calling on China to “Adhere to Socialism and Prevent Peaceful Evolution toward Capitalism.” Mao had warned repeatedly against “peaceful evolution” as well. See “Mao Zedong and Dulles’s ‘Peaceful Evolution’ Strategy: Revelations from Bo Yibo’s Memoirs,” Cold War International History Project Bulletin 6/7 (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Winter 1996/1997), 228.

8 Reflecting this fact, “Most Favored Nation” has since been technically renamed “Permanent Normal Trade Relations,” although the “MFN” label remains in use.

9 Anthony Lake, “From Containment to Enlargement,” address at the Nitze School of Advanced International Studies, Johns Hopkins University, Washington, D.C., September 21, 1993, from Department of State Dispatch 4, no. 39 (September 27, 1993).

11 William J. Clinton, “Statement on Most-Favored-Nation Trade Status for China” (May 28, 1993), Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1994), book 1, 770–71.

19 See, for example, Deng Xiaoping, “An Idea for the Peaceful Reunification of the Chinese Mainland and Taiwan: June 26, 1983,” Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, vol. 3, 40–42.

20 John W. Garver, Face Off: China, the United States, and Taiwan’s Democratization (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997), 15; James Carman, “Lee Teng-Hui: A Man of the Country,” Cornell Magazine (June 1995), accessed at http://www.news.cornell.edu/campus/Lee/Cornell_Magazine_Profile.html .

22 William J. Clinton, “Remarks and an Exchange with Reporters Following Discussions with President Jiang Zemin of China in Seattle: November 19, 1993,” Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1994), 2022–25.

23 Garver, Face Off, 92–97; Robert Suettinger, “U.S. ‘Management’ of Three Taiwan Strait ‘Crises,’” in Michael D. Swaine and Zhang Tuosheng with Danielle F. S. Cohen, eds., Managing Sino-American Crises: Case Studies and Analysis (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2006), 278.

25 Robert Lawrence Kuhn, The Man Who Changed China: The Life and Legacy of Jiang Zemin (New York: Crown Publishers, 2004), 2.

28 Barry Naughton, The Chinese Economy: Transitions and Growth (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2007), 142–43.

29 Michael P. Riccards, The Presidency and the Middle Kingdom: China, the United States, and Executive Leadership (New York: Lexington Books, 2000), 12.

31 Zhu Rongji, “Speech and Q&A at the Advanced Seminar on China’s Economic Development in the Twenty-first Century” (September 22, 1997), in Zhu Rongji’s Answers to Journalists’ Questions (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011) (forthcoming), Chapter 5.

1 Richard Daniel Ewing, “Hu Jintao: The Making of a Chinese General Secretary,” China Quarterly 173 (March 2003): 19.

3 Xiaokang , now a widely used official policy term, is a 2,500-year-old Confucian phrase suggesting a moderately well-off population with a modest amount of disposable income. See “Confucius and the Party Line,” The Economist (May 22, 2003); “Confucius Makes a Comeback,” The Economist (May 17, 2007).

5 George W. Bush, “Remarks Following Discussions with Premier Wen Jiabao and an Exchange with Reporters: December 9, 2003,” Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2006), 1701.

6 David Barboza, “Chinese Leader Fields Executives’ Questions,” New York Times (September 22, 2010).

7 Cui Changfa and Xu Mingshan, eds., Gaoceng Jiangtan [Top-leaders’ Rostrums ] (Beijing: Hongqi Chubanshe, 2007), 165–82, as cited in Masuda Masayuki, “China’s Search for a New Foreign Policy Frontier: Concept and Practice of ‘Harmonious World,’” 62, in Masafumi Iida, ed., China’s Shift: Global Strategy of the Rising Power (Tokyo: NIDS Joint Research Series, 2009).

8 Wen Jiabao, “A Number of Issues Regarding the Historic Tasks in the Initial Stage of Socialism and China’s Foreign Policy,” Xinhua (February 26, 2007), as cited in Masuda, “China’s Search for a New Foreign Policy Frontier: Concept and Practice of ‘Harmonious World,’” 62–63.

9 David Shambaugh, “Coping with a Conflicted China,” The Washington Quarterly 34, no. 1 (Winter 2011): 8.

10 Zheng Bijian, “China’s ‘Peaceful Rise’ to Great-Power Status,” Foreign Affairs 84, no. 5 (September/October 2005): 22.

11 Hu Jintao, “Build Towards a Harmonious World of Lasting Peace and Common Prosperity,” speech at the United Nations Summit (New York, September 15, 2005).

12 The number eight is regarded as auspicious in Chinese numerology. It is a near homonym for the word “to prosper” in some Chinese dialects.

13 Nathan Gardels, “Post-Olympic Powershift: The Return of the Middle Kingdom in a Post-American World,” New Perspectives Quarterly 25, no. 4 (Fall 2008): 7–8.

14 “Di shi yi ci zhuwaishi jie huiyi zhao kai, Hu Jintao, Wen Jiabao jianghua” [“Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao speak at the 11th meeting of overseas envoys”], website of the Central People’s Government of the People’s Republic of China, accessed at http://www.gov.cn/ldhd/2009-07/20/content_1370171.html .

15 Wang Xiaodong, “Gai you xifang zhengshi zhongguo ‘bu gaoxing’ le” [“It is now up to the West to face squarely that China is unhappy”], in Song Xiaojun, Wang Xiaodong, Huang Jisu, Song Qiang, and Liu Yang, Zhongguo bu gaoxing: da shidai, da mubiao ji women de neiyou waihuan [China Is Unhappy: The Great Era, the Grand Goal, and Our Internal Anxieties and External Challenges ] (Nanjing: Jiangsu Renmin Chubanshe, 2009), 39.

16 Song Xiaojun, “Meiguo bu shi zhilaohu, shi ‘lao huanggua shua lü qi’” [“America is not a paper tiger, it’s an ‘old cucumber painted green’”] in Song, Wang, et al., Zhongguo bu gaoxing , 85.

17 A classical Chinese expression signifying a postconflict return to peace with no expectation of recommencing hostilities.

21 Liu Mingfu, Zhongguo meng: hou meiguo shidai de daguo siwei yu zhanlüe dingwei [China Dream: Great Power Thinking and Strategic Posture in the Post-American Era ] (Beijing: Zhongguo Youyi Chuban Gongsi, 2010).

25 Some analyses posit that while the sentiments expressed in these books are real and may be common in much of the Chinese military establishment, they partly reflect a profit motive: provocative books sell well in any country, and nationalist tracts such as China Is Unhappy and China Dream are published by private publishing companies. See Phillip C. Saunders, “Will China’s Dream Turn into America’s Nightmare?” China Brief 10, no. 7 (Washington, D.C.: Jamestown Foundation, April 1, 2010): 10–11.

26 Dai Bingguo, “Persisting with Taking the Path of Peaceful Development” (Beijing: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, December 6, 2010).

1 Crowe knew the issue from both sides. Born in Leipzig to a British diplomat father and a German mother, he had moved to England only at the age of seventeen. His wife was of German origin, and even as a loyal servant of the Crown, Crowe retained a cultural and familial connection to the European continent. Michael L. Dockrill and Brian J. C. McKercher, Diplomacy and World Power: Studies in British Foreign Policy, 1890–1951 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 27.

2 Eyre Crowe, “Memorandum on the Present State of British Relations with France and Germany” (Foreign Office, January 1, 1907), in G. P. Gooch and Harold Temperley, eds., British Documents on the Origins of the War, vol. 3: The Testing of the Entente (London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1928), 406.

8 Phillip C. Saunders, “Will China’s Dream Turn into America’s Nightmare?” China Brief 10, no. 7 (Washington, D.C.: Jamestown Foundation, April 1, 2010): 10 (quoting Liu Mingfu Global Times article).

9 Liu Mingfu, Zhongguo meng : hou meiguo shidai de daguo siwei yu zhanlüe dingwei [China Dream: Great Power Thinking and Strategic Posture in the Post-American Era ] (Beijing: Zhongguo Youyi Chuban Gongsi, 2010), 24; Chris Buckley, “China PLA Officer Urges Challenging U.S. Dominance,” Reuters, February 28, 2010, accessed at http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/03/01/us-china-usa-military-exclusive-idUSTRE6200P620100301 .

10 Richard Daniel Ewing, “Hu Jintao: The Making of a Chinese General Secretary,” China Quarterly 173 (March 2003): 29–31.

11 Dai Bingguo, “Persisting with Taking the Path of Peaceful Development” (Beijing: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, December 6, 2010).

12 Adele Hayutin, “China’s Demographic Shifts: The Shape of Things to Come” (Stanford: Stanford Center on Longevity, October 24, 2008), 7.

15 See Joshua Cooper Ramo, “Hu’s Visit: Finding a Way Forward on U.S.-China Relations,” Time (April 8, 2010). Ramo adopts the concept of co-evolution from the field of biology as an interpretive framework for U.S.-China relations.

Index

Acheson, Dean:

and Korea

and Taiwan

White Paper of

Afghanistan:

Chinese investment in

Marxist coup in

Soviet expansionist efforts in

Soviet influence in

Soviet withdrawal from

U.S.–China anti-Soviet activities in

U.S. efforts in

Africa:

colonial rivalry in

Soviet designs in

aggression, defined

Aksai Chin

Albania, People’s Republic of

Albright, Madeleine

America, see United States

Amherst, William Pitt, Lord

Andropov, Yuri

Anti-Rightist Campaign

Arab-Israeli War (1973)

Arrow

Arunachal Pradesh (South Tibet)

ASEAN nations

Asian Development Bank

Asian financial crisis (1997–98)

Atlantic Community, see NATO

Austria-Hungary, and Boxer Uprising

Baker, James A., 3rd

barbarians

barbarians pitted against

confrontations with

and Eight-Power expeditionary force

equality with

feigning compliance with

five baits used with

greed of

technological achievements of

threats of invasion by

trade with

tribute-paying

Belgrade, Chinese embassy destroyed in

Berlin Wall, fall of

Bismarck, Otto von

Blumenthal, W. Michael

Boer War

Bogue, Treaty of the

Bohlen, Charles “Chip,”

Bosnia-Herzegovina

Boxer Uprising

Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of

Brezhnev, Leonid

Brown, Harold

Bruce, Frederick

Brzezinski, Zbigniew:

Deng’s meetings with

Hua Guofeng’s meetings with

and military technology for China

and Nixon’s five principles

and normalization

and Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia

Buddhism

Bundy, McGeorge

Burma

Bush, George H. W.:

administration of

as CIA director

and Deng’s retirement

and Fang Lizhi controversy

and Gorbachev

and post–Cold War China

and Tiananmen crisis

visit to China

Bush, George W.

administration of

and U.S.–China dialogue

Cairo Conference

Cambodia

coalition government in

Khmer Rouge in, see Khmer Rouge

and Second Vietnam War (U.S.)

Soviet evacuation of

Soviet interest in

U.S. troops in

Vietnamese invasion of

Vietnamese withdrawal from

Carter, Jimmy:

as candidate

and Deng

and Hua Guofeng

and human rights

and nonpartisanship

on sovereignty

Carter administration

and arms sales to Taiwan

and Deng

and Hua Guofeng

and normalization

and Soviet containment

and Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia

Catherine the Great

Cato the Elder

Ceauşescu, Nicolae

Chai Zemin

Chen Jian

Chen Shui-bian

Chen Yi

Chernenko, Konstantin

chess, total victory in

Chiang Ching-kuo

Chiang Kai-shek

and civil war

and Stalin

on Taiwan

U.S. support of

China:

agrarian society of

Anti-Rightist Campaign in

borders of

bureaucracy of

as center of the universe

and century of humiliation

civil war

Communist Party in, see Chinese Communist Party

Confucianism in, see Confucian scholars; Confucian tradition

continuous revolution in

Cultural Revolution in, see Cultural Revolution

decentralization in

domestic upheavals in

economy (nineteenth century)

economy (twentieth century)

economy (twenty-first century)

education in

era of preeminence

famine in

Five-Year Plans

foreign embassies in

foreign investments by

Four Modernizations

global role sought by

Great Leap Forward

historic cycles of

Hundred Flowers Campaign

Internet use in

isolation of

Japanese invasion of

and Korean War

map

militarized by Mao

military inferiority of

military theory in

missionaries in

national identity of

Nationalists in, see Nationalist Party

naval expeditions of

nepotism in

New China

in the new millennium, see twenty-first century

nuclear weapons of

one China principle

and Pacific Community

as peaceful country

“peaceful rise” theory in

Reform and Opening Up

self-strengthening in

self-sufficiency of

Sino-Indian War (1962)

Sino-Vietnam war (1979)

in Six Party Talks

Special Economic Zones

strategic decision making in

succession issues in

and Taiwan, see Taiwan

and Third World

Three Represents

trade with

Treaty of Friendship with Soviet Union

treaty ports of

unification

and United Nations

and Vietnam War: first (France)

and Vietnam War: second (U.S.)

and Vietnam War: third (China)

China Dream (Liu Mingfu)

China Human Rights Group

China Is Unhappy

Chinese civilization

as all civilization

founding myth of

preeminence of

Chinese Communist Party:

and continuous revolution

and Cultural Revolution

establishment of (1921)

and Great Leap Forward

and Hundred Flowers

and Long March

in modern times

Nationalists vs.

on Nixon’s visit

and Soviet Union

victory in civil war (1949)

and world Communist movement

Chinese culture

attainment of

conquerors assimilated into

Cultural Revolution

endurance of

Mao’s dismantling of

pervasiveness of

poetry

rituals in

as secular in nature

spread of

uniqueness of

Chinese Embassy, Belgrade, destruction of

Chinese Emperor:

and All Under Heaven

conception of

as Emperor of Humanity

expanding realm of

fleeing the capital

Gong memorial to

and Great Harmony

kowtow to

and Mandate of Heaven

palace coup

as Son of Heaven

subservience to

Summer Palace burned

Chinese language

and calligraphy

note on spellings

spread of

written characters

Chinese people:

on communes

and continuous revolution

convictions of

creative thinking of

demographics

domestic upheavals of

endurance of

famine

happiness of

and modernization

one-child policy

overseas Chinese

poverty of

standard of living

Chinese Republic

one China principle

in Taiwan, see Taiwan

two Chinas principle

Christopher, Warren M.

Chuan-pi Convention

Churchill, Winston

Cixi, Empress Dowager

Clausewitz, Carl von

Clinton, Bill

Clinton, Hillary R.

Clinton administration

and human rights

and Taiwan Strait Crisis

Cold War:

arms control talks in

balance of power in

China’s survival in

combative coexistence in

containment theory in

détente in

deterrence in

end of

and horizontal line

Mutual Assured Destruction in

national interests as focus in

Non-Aligned nations in

nuclear threat in

peaceful coexistence in

and U.S.–China reconciliation, see U.S.–China reconciliation

and Vietnam, see Vietnam War

Communism:

in Asia

balance-of-power contest

central planning in

in China, see Chinese Communist Party

collapse in Europe

commitment to expansion

ideological differences in

suspicion among proponents of

united front of

and world revolution

Confucian scholars:

in Chinese bureaucracy

persecuted by Qin Shihuang

in Vietnam

Confucian tradition:

in diplomacy

Emperor in

Great Harmony

Mao’s assault on

opponents of

resilience of

Confucius

Analects

life span of

myth of

profit concept in Confucian thought

statue of

themes of

Way of

writings in time of

Congress, U.S.:

Jackson-Vanik Agreement

and Most Favored Nation status

and Taiwan

and Tiananmen

and Watergate

Crowe, Eyre

Crowe Memorandum

modern parallel to

Cuba

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

Cultural Revolution

chaos of

and Chinese culture

and Communist Party

and Deng

end of

and Fang Lizhi

and Gang of Four

and “Little Red Book,”

objectives of

onset of

and PLA

purges in

Red Guards in

repercussions of

sources of

and Zhou

Czechoslovakia:

end of Communism in

Soviet occupation of

Dagu Forts

Dai Bingguo

Dalai Lama

de Gaulle, Charles

Deng Liqun

Deng Nan

Deng Pufang

Deng Xiaoping

ascendance of

and Cultural Revolution

death of

fall of

first return to power

foreign policy of

and Gang of Four

Kissinger’s meetings with

leadership style of

and Mao

and modernization

and one-party rule

pragmatism of

Reform and Opening Up

remoteness in later years

retirement of

and seeking truth from facts

socialism with Chinese characteristics

and Soviet relations

and succession

and Three Worlds

and Tiananmen crisis

travels of

12- and 24-character statements of

and U.S.–China relations

and Vietnam

visit to United States

diplomacy:

ambassadorial talks

ambiguity in

appeasement

balance-of-power

Chinese vs. Western approach to

in Cold War, see Cold War

complex issues of

Confucian values in

consultation system of

and context

functions of

in nineteenth century

people-to-people

and Ping-Pong tournament

power-oriented

Realpolitik

resident embassies in China

and statesmanship

transactional

triangular

war as failure of

as zero-sum game

Disraeli, Benjamin

Dobrynin, Anatoly

Dream of the Red Chamber

Du Halde, Jean-Baptiste

Dulles, John Foster

and nuclear threat

on peaceful evolution to capitalism

and Taiwan

and Zhou

Dundas, Henry

Eagleburger, Lawrence

Eight-Power expeditionary force

Eisenhower, Dwight D.

Eisenhower administration

Elgin, Lord

Elliot, Charles

“Empty City Strategem,”

Europe:

balance-of-power diplomacy and

colonial aims of

Communist collapse in

economic gain as goal of

NATO

pre–World War I

sovereignty in

Thirty Years’ War

traders from

Warsaw Pact in

Westphalian system in

and World War I

and World War II

extraterritoriality principle

Fallaci, Oriana

Fang Lizhi

five baits

Five-Year Plans

“Foolish Old Man, The,”

Ford, Gerald R.:

and foreign policy

and political campaigns

visit to China

Ford administration

Kissinger’s role in

and Taiwan

Foreign Affairs :

Kennedy’s article in

Nixon’s article in

Zheng Bijian’s article in

Four Modernizations

France:

and Boxer Uprising

and Japan

pre–World War I

and trade with China

and Vietnam

French Revolution

Fuzhou, as treaty port

Gang of Four

anarchy advocated by

and anti-Confucian campaign

and Cultural Revolution

and Deng

fall of

Jiang Qing

and Mao Zedong Thought

and Taiwan

on turning inward

Wang Hongwen

Yao Wenyuan

Zhang Chunqiao

Gates, Thomas S., Jr.

Geneva Conferences:

1954 conference

1962 conference

Geng Biao

George III, King of England

Germany:

and Boxer Uprising

and Japan

Nazi-Soviet pact

pre–World War I

Qingdao occupied by

and Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

unification of

and world wars

Gingrich, Newt

Gong, Prince

Gorbachev, Mikhail

and arms limitations

economic assistance requested by

and reforms

Tiananmen crisis during visit of

and U.S. summit

Gordon, Charles “Chinese,”

Great Britain:

Arrow

art treasures destroyed by

and balance of power

Boer War

and Boxer Uprising

Chinese ports blockaded by

Chuan-pi Convention

embassy destroyed by Red Guards

and Hong Kong

Macartney Mission

naval power of

Opium War

pre–World War I

territories sought by

and Tibet

Treaty of Nanjing

Treaty of the Bogue

Treaty of Tianjin

Great Harmony

Great Leap Forward

Great Wall

Gromyko, Andrei

Guangzhou (Canton), trade center

Haig, Alexander

Han Chinese

Han Dynasty

collapse of

five baits of

harmonious world, concept of

Hay, John

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich

Helms, Richard

Hill, E. F.

Hitler, Adolf

Ho Chi Minh

Holdridge, John

Hong Kong

British claims on

economic growth of

returned to China

horizontal line

Howe, Jon

Hua Guofeng

fading from view

Kissinger’s meetings with

as Mao’s successor

and Soviet Union

Two Whatevers

and U.S.–China relations

Huang Hua

Huang Zhen

Huc, Abbé Régis-Evariste

Hu Jintao

career of

and China’s world role

as fourth-generation leader

and harmony

and new millennium

and traditional wisdom

U.N. speech of

Hundred Flowers Campaign

Hurley, Patrick

Hussein, Saddam

Hu Yaobang

career of

death of

and economic reforms

foreign policy speech of

Ignatieff, Nikolai

India:

asylum to Dalai Lama

border disputes with

British colony in

division of

Forward Policy of

and Korean War

opium in

and Pacific Community

Sino-Indian War (1962)

and Tibet

Indochina:

Communist threat in

and Pacific Community

wars in; see also Vietnam War

weak nations in

see also Cambodia; Laos; Vietnam

Indochinese Federation

international law:

China and

sovereignty in

international relations:

alliances in

avoiding battle in

balance of power in; see also Cold War

Chinese aloofness in

collective security in

diplomacy, see diplomacy

effect of domestic systems on

and globalization

Heavenly Envoys sent abroad

and Mao

MFN, see Most Favored Nation status

and national interest

in nineteenth century

psychology applied in

sovereignty in

strategic trust in

transnational principles in

and wei qi, see wei qi

Western concept of

Zongli Yamen

Iran

Iran-Iraq War

Iraq

Iraq War

Italy, and Boxer Uprising

Jackson-Vanik Amendment (1974)

Japan:

and Boxer Uprising

competition for dominance in East Asia

culture of

Deng’s travel to

economy of

Emperor of

exceptionalism of

foreign invasion of

go in

industrialization of

invasion of China

kamikaze (Divine Wind) of

and Korea

and Manchuria/Manchukuo

Meiji Restoration in

and Pacific Community

political philosophy of

relations of China and

and Russia

Russo-Japanese War

and Ryukyu Islands

in Six Party Talks

and Taiwan

territorial expansion of

threats to China

trade with

U.S. relations with

and World War II

Jiang Qing

and Cultural Revolution

and Gang of Four

Jiang Zemin

achievements of

and Clinton administration

and compromise

and Deng’s Southern Tour

and domestic crisis

and economic growth

and G. H. W. Bush administration

and G. W. Bush administration

Kissinger’s meetings with

leadership style of

and Soviet collapse

and succession

and Taiwan

Three Represents of

and transactional diplomacy

visits to United States

Ji Pengfei

Johnson, Lyndon B.

Johnson administration

Jomini, Antoine-Henri

Kant, Immanuel, “Perpetual Peace,”

Kennan, George

Kennedy, John F.

Keynes, John Maynard

Khmer Rouge

mass killings by

takeover of Cambodia by

and Vietnamese invasion

Khrushchev, Nikita

and de-Stalinization

and Mao

and peaceful coexistence

and Sino-Indian War

and Taiwan

Kim Il-sung

and Korean War

Kohler, Foy

Kong Fu-zi, see Confucius

Korea

economy of

and Japan

northern and southern zones of

and Russia

in Six Party Talks

38th parallel

as tributary state

in twenty-first century

Korean War

armistice agreement

Chinese reactions to

Sino-U.S. confrontation in

and Soviet Union

and U.N.

U.S. entry into

Kosovo war

Kosygin, Aleksei

kowtow ritual

Lake, Anthony

Lampton, David

Laos

Lattimore, Owen

Lay, Horatio

Le Duc Tho

Lee Kuan Yew

Lee Teng-hui

Lenin, V. I.

Leninism

Libya, and nuclear capability

Li Daoyu

Li Hongzhang

death of

and Japan

and Korea

Lilley, James

Lin Biao

and Cultural Revolution

death of

fall from grace

and Korean War

and “Little Red Book,”

“Long Live the Victory of People’s War,”

and Taiwan

Lincoln, Abraham

Lin Zexu

Li Peng

Li Ruihuan

“Little Red Book,”

Liu Mingfu

Liu Shaoqi

Long March

Lord, Winston

Lu Hsing-chi

Macao

MacArthur, Douglas

Macartney, Lord George

Macartney mission

aftermath of

aims of

departure of

gap in perceptions of

and kowtow question

rebuff of

Machiavelli, Niccolò

Maclean, Donald

McLeod, Gary

McMahon Line

mahjong

Malacca Strait

Malaysia, guerrilla war in

Malraux, André

Manchu Dynasty

Manchuria:

and Japan

Russian designs on

Trans-Siberian Railway across

Manchu tribes, and Qing Dynasty

Mandate of Heaven:

barbarian threats to

and changes of dynasty

and domestic uprisings

loss of

in the person of the Emperor

as the right to govern

Mao Zedong

achievements of

aging

Chinese heritage dismantled by

and civil war

and Communist Party

and Cultural Revolution

death of

and Dunkirk

epigrams of

and Great Harmony

and Great Leap Forward

health problems of

and horizontal line

and Hundred Flowers Campaign

and ideology

and international relations

and Khrushchev

Kissinger’s meetings with

and Korean War

“Little Red Book” of

mausoleum of

nationalism of

and Nixon

and nuclear threat

personal traits of

as philosopher-teacher

reaching into the past

and revolution

Snow interviews

succession issues

and Sun Tzu’s Art of War

and Taiwan

and Three Worlds

travels to Moscow

and U.S. relations, see U.S.–China reconciliation

writings of

Mao Zedong Thought

map

Marshall, George

Marshall Plan

Marx, Karl

Marxism-Leninism

Matsu

Matthews, Diane

Meadows, Thomas

Meiji Restoration

Mencius

Middle East:

Mao on

oil in

Soviet designs on

Middle Kingdom, as center of universe

Middleton, Drew

Ming Dynasty:

aloofness of

and border threats

naval expeditions of

Mitchell, George J.

Molotov, Vyacheslav

Mondale, Walter “Fritz,”

Mongol Dynasty, collapse of

Mongolia:

quasi-autonomy of

Russian designs on

Timurlane

Mongolian People’s Republic

Mongol tribes:

and Qing Dynasty

and Tibet

monotheism

Morocco

Most Favored Nation status:

in China trade

and Jackson-Vanik Amendment

in U.S. trade

U.S. values promoted by

Nakasone, Yasuhiro

Nanjing, Treaty of

Napier, Lord

Napoleonic Wars

Nariakira, Shimazu

Nathan, Andrew J.

Nationalist Party:

Chiang as leader of; see also Chiang Kai-shek

Chinese Communists vs.

and Stalin

and Taiwan; see also Taiwan

and U.S. policies

NATO

Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939)

Nehru, Jawaharlal

New China

Nie Rongzhen

Ningbo, as treaty port

Nixon, Richard M.:

foreign policy principles of

inaugural address of

interest in China

and Mao

and reconciliation, see U.S.–China reconciliation

and Shanghai Communiqué

and Vietnam War

visit to China (1972)

and Watergate

Nixon administration, Kissinger’s roles in

Non-Aligned nations:

Chinese influence on

Mao’s “Three Worlds” vision

and nuclear weapons

and Soviet threat

North Korea:

creation of

isolation of

Korean War

nuclear weapons of

see also Korea

North Vietnam, see Vietnam; Vietnam War

Novotny, Antonin

Obama, Barack

Obama administration

Ohira, Masayoshi

Olympic Games

Opium War

repercussions of

treaties

Outer Mongolia

Outlaws of the Marsh

Pacific Community, in twenty-first century

Pakistan:

as intermediary

and nuclear capability

Palmerston, Henry John Temple, Lord

and Elgin expedition

and Opium War

Panikkar, K. M.

Paris Peace Accords

peaceful rise, concept of

Pelosi, Nancy

Peng Dehuai

Peng Zhen

People’s Liberation Army (PLA):

and Cultural Revolution

Deng protected by

and Korean War

marshals as Mao’s advisors

and Taiwan Strait

and Third Vietnam War

People’s Republic of China (PRC)

establishment of

and one China

and two Chinas

U.S. relations with

world role of

see also China; Chinese Communist Party

Perry, Matthew

Pescadores Islands

Peter the Great

Peyrefitte, Alain

Pham Van Dong

Phomvihane, Kaysone

Ping-Pong diplomacy

Pol Pot

Pottinger, Sir Henry

Pye, Lucian

Qian Qichen:

on China’s sovereignty

and China’s world role

and Fang Lizhi package deal

Kissinger’s meetings with

and Soviet collapse

and U.S.–China relations

Qiao Guanhua

Qin Dynasty

Qing Dynasty:

barbarian threat in

and Boxer Uprising

collapse of

decline of

and diplomacy

domestic upheavals in

establishment of

and opium trade

and territorial expansion

and Tibet

Qin Shihuang

Qishan, Viceroy of Zhili

Qiying

Quemoy

Quesnay, François

RAND Corporation

Rather, Dan

Ready, Jack

Reagan, Ronald

visit to China (1984)

Reagan administration:

and Cambodia

Strategic Defense Initiative

and Taiwan arms sales

and Third Communiqué

and U.S. rearmament

Red Guards

Republic of China, see Chinese Republic; Taiwan

Reynolds, Joshua

Rhee, Syngman

Richardson, Elliot

Rise of Great Powers, The (TV)

River Elegy (TV)

Rogers, William

Romance of the Three Kingdoms, The

Romania:

end of Communism in

as intermediary

Roosevelt, Franklin D.

Rumsfeld, Donald H.

Rusk, Dean

Russia:

and Boxer Uprising

and Cold War, see Soviet Union

foreign mission in China

and Japan

and Korea

pre–World War I

in Six Party Talks

territorial aims of

and Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Russian Revolution

Russo-Japanese War

Ryukyu Islands

Sadat, Anwar

Sainteny, Jean

Samphan, Khieu

Sasser, James

Schlesinger, James R.

Scott, Hugh

Scowcroft, Brent

and Deng

and Kissinger’s visit to China

and Soviet decline

and Tiananmen crisis

SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization)

September 11 attacks

Shambaugh, David

Shang Dynasty

Shanghai, as treaty port

Shanghai Communiqué

Shanghai Democracy Forum

Shen Zhihua

Shevardnadze, Eduard

shi, concept of

Shi Zhe

Shultz, George P.

Sihanouk, Norodom

Silk Road

Singapore:

and Communism

economic growth in

unrest in

Sino-Indian War (1962)

Sino-Vietnam War (1979)

Six Assurances

Six Party Talks

Smyser, Dick

Snow, Edgar:

Mao interviews

Red Star Over China

Song Dynasty

Song Xiaojun

South Korea, see Korea

South Tibet

South Yemen

Soviet Union:

and Acheson’s White Paper

and Afghanistan

and Africa

before and after Cold War, see Russia

and Chinese Communist Party

as Cold War adversary

as Cold War ally to China

collapse of

containment of

decline of

dominance in Communist world

economic policies of

and horizontal line

industrialization of

and Korean War

Mao’s travels to

Nazi-Soviet pact

and nuclear weapons

power-oriented diplomacy of

reforms in

sphere of influence in Asia

Sputnik launch by

Treaty of Friendship with China

and triangular diplomacy

troops on Chinese borders

and United Nations

and Ussuri River

and Vietnam

and Warsaw Pact

Special Economic Zones

Spring and Autumn period (770–476 B.C.)

Sputnik

Stalin, Joseph:

and Acheson’s White Paper

and China’s economy

death of

and Hitler

Khrushchev’s denunciation of

and Korean War

Mao’s 70-30 rating of

meeting of Mao and

and Nationalist China

purges by

at Yalta

statesmanship, role of

Stoessel, Walter

Sun Tzu

The Art of War

on interconnectedness

Sun Wu

Sun Yat-sen

Suslov, Mikhail

Taiping Rebellion

Taiwan:

arms sales to

considered part of China/one China

and diplomatic talks

economy of

elections in

and five principles

and Japan

Kissinger’s discussions on

Nationalist Chinese on

and offshore islands

planned conquest of

and Shanghai Communiqué

Six Assurances with

and Third Communiqué

and two Chinas

and United Nations

U.S. policies toward

Taiwan Relations Act (1979)

Taiwan Strait:

crises (1954–58)

first crisis

second crisis

third crisis (1995)

U.S. ships in

Tanaka, Kakuei

Tang, Nancy

Tang Dynasty

Tang Longbin

terrorism:

nuclear

September 11 attacks

weapons of mass destruction

Thailand

Third Communiqué (1982)

Third World (Non-Aligned):

Chinese influence in

Mao’s “Three Worlds” vision

and Soviet threat

Thirty Years’ War

Thompson, Llewellyn

Three Kingdoms Period (A.D. 220–280)

Three Represents

Three Worlds

Tiananmen Incident (1976)

Tiananmen Square crisis (1989)

aftermath of

antigovernment protests in

and Deng

and Fang Lizhi controversy

and Gorbachev’s visit

Hu Yaobang’s death

Jiang’s reflections on

12- and 24-character statements

U.S. dilemmas in

Tianjin, Treaty of

Tibet

and border dispute

Dalai Lama’s flight from

unrest in

Time

Timurlane

Tito, Josip Broz

Trans-Siberian Railway

Trotsky, Leon

Truman, Harry S.

Truman administration:

and Korean War

and Taiwan

“24 Dynastic Histories,”

twenty-first century

China’s global role in

China’s leadership in

Dai Bingguo’s statement of policy

differences in perspective

economic issues

national destiny debate

nonproliferation

Pacific Community in

strategic opportunity in

terrorist attacks

U.S.–China “co-evolution” in

U.S. responsibility in

weapons of mass destruction

Two Whatevers

Tyler, John

unequal treaties

United Nations:

anniversary of

China’s seat in

and economic development

and international security

and Korean War

on living standard

Security Council members

and Taiwan

and Three Worlds

and war on terrorism

United States:

Acheson White Paper

and Boxer Uprising

changes of administration in

and Chinese Nationalists

Chinese suspicions about

and Cold War, see Cold War; Soviet Union

current and future, see twenty-first century

debate about who “lost” China

embassy relocated to Beijing

and human rights issue

and Korean War

and Most Favored Nation (MFN)

NSC-48/2 document

and nuclear weapons

Open Door policy of

and Pacific Community

Perry’s “black ships” from

proposed role in Asia

relations with China; see also U.S.–China reconciliation; specific U.S. administrations

in Six Party Talks

spreading values of

as superpower

and Taiwan, see Taiwan

and Tiananmen crisis

and triangular diplomacy

and United Nations

and Vietnam, see Vietnam; Vietnam War

U.S.–China reconciliation

aftermath of

Chinese strategy in

conceptual discussions in

final meetings with Mao

and friendship

and Geneva/Warsaw talks

and horizontal line

intermediaries in

Kissinger’s role in

Kissinger’s second visit

Kissinger’s secret visit

Kissinger’s subsequent visits

and Nixon’s visit

normalization of relations

Ping-Pong diplomacy

preparations for summit

as quasi-alliance

and Shanghai Communiqué

Snow interviews

and Soviet Union

Third Communiqué

U.S. strategy in

and Ussuri River clash

U.S. technology to China

and Vietnam

U.S.–China Strategic and Economic Dialogue

Ussuri River

Vance, Cyrus

Victoria, Queen of England

Vietnam:

Cambodia invaded by

and classical China

Communist

Confucian elite in

and diplomatic talks

and France (first war)

independence of

Kissinger’s visit to (1973)

nationalism of

and Pacific Community

regional ambitions of

Soviet treaty with

withdrawal from Cambodia

Vietnam War

antiwar protests during

and Art of War

with China (third war)

Chinese aloofness from proclaimed by Mao

Geneva Conference (1954)

Paris Peace Accords

significance of

and U.S.–China relations

U.S. forces in (second war)

and U.S. policies

U.S. withdrawal from

Vladivostok

Vo Nguyen Giap

Vyshinsky, Andrey

Wang Bingnan

Wang Hairong

Wang Hongwen

Wang Jiaxiang

War Powers Act (1973)

Warring States period (475–221 B.C.)

Warsaw Pact

Watergate

wei qi

and balance of power

and Cambodia

and Chinese civil war

and Cold War

compared with chess

as “game of surrounding pieces,”

in Himalayas

and Khmer Rouge

and Korean War

Mao’s approach to military strategy and

strategic encirclement in

and Taiwan

and Vietnam wars

Wei Yuan

Wen Jiabao

Whiting, Allen

Wilson, Woodrow, principles of

Wo-ren

World War I

aftermath of

Crowe Memorandum

events leading to

World War II:

Cairo Conference

Chinese survival of

events leading to

Japanese surrender in

postwar Europe

Russian survival of

Stalin-Chiang negotiation in

U.S. superpower status following

Xiamen, as treaty port

Xinjiang:

Russian designs on

unrest in

Xiongnu tribes, threats from

Xiong Xianghui

Xu Xiangqian

Yahya Khan, Agha Muhammad

Yalta conference (1945)

Yang Shangkun

Yao Wenyuan

Yao Yilin

Ye Jianying

Yellow Emperor, tale of

Yuan Dynasty

Yuan Shikai

Zeng Guofan

Zhang Chunqiao

Zhang Wenjin

Zhao Ziyang

career of

and economic reforms

Jiang Zemin as successor to

Kissinger’s discussions with

and Tiananmen

Zhenbao Island

Zheng Bijian

Zheng He

zhongguo (Middle Kingdom)

Zhou, House of

Zhou Enlai

and Cultural Revolution

death of

fall of

and Forbidden City

illness of

and Korean War

and Mao

and Middle East

and Nixon’s visit to China

and Non-Aligned nations

personal traits of

and Shanghai Communiqué

and Soviet relations

and succession

and Taiwan

and territorial claims

and U.S.–China reconciliation

and Vietnam

Zhuge Liang:

alliance policies of

“Empty City Stratagem,”

Zhu Rongji

Zoellick, Robert

Zongli Yamen